For example, in a standard passive avoidance procedure for rats, a rat is placed in a brightly lit compartment of a two-compartment box, with the second compartment being dark and the two compartments separated by a closed door ( Venable and Kelly, 1990 Kaminsky et al., 2001). For example, dogs will learn to jump a barrier following the presentation of a light, previously associated with shock administration ( Solomon and Wynne, 1953).īy contrast, in passive avoidance procedures, the aversive event occurs only if an experimenter-designated response is executed during the antecedent stimulus presentation. In active avoidance procedures, for example, an antecedent stimulus is followed by an aversive event unless an experimenter-designated response is executed, a response that typically also terminates the antecedent stimulus. Laboratory Procedures for Studying Avoidance LearningĪvoidance learning procedures typically entail the cancelation of an impending aversive event by either the emission or inhibition of an experimenter-designated response. We end our review with suggestions for closer alignment between basic and clinical science and a few avenues for future research. Next, we propose a set of principles for avoidance learning that incorporates the most well-validated propositions of the aforementioned theories. We then review more recent theories of avoidance learning that address informational factors (e.g., expectancies) in avoidance. In the third section we describe Bolles' (1970, 1971) Species-Specific Defense Reactions (SSDR) theory. Next, we discuss traditional theories of avoidance learning, including Mowrer's two-factor theory. The outline of the paper is as follows: We first describe how avoidance learning is studied in laboratory settings and how functionally similar behaviors can serve the avoidance of or the escape from an aversive event. Lastly, we consider recent findings from behavioral neuroscience. We also address the clinical implications of those principles and relate them to current and novel interventions for maladaptive avoidance such as in anxiety disorders or PTSD. In this paper we review the main historical and modern theories of avoidance learning and present a set of principles of avoidance learning that integrate those theoretical propositions with the strongest experimental support. In parallel, recent years have brought rapid increases in our understanding of the brain processes involved in the learning (e.g., Delgado et al., 2009), expression (e.g., Cominski et al., 2014), and reduction (e.g., McCue et al., 2014) of avoidance behavior.
Scoring active avoidance shuttle box any maze manual#
The latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5 American Psychiatric Association, 2013) includes avoidance in several diagnostic criteria that previously referred to fear only.
In the last years, new psychological theories of avoidance learning have been proposed (e.g., De Houwer et al., 2005 Lovibond, 2006) and avoidance is quickly becoming a topic of prime empirical interest not only in experimental psychology but also in clinical psychology and psychiatry as well as in behavioral neuroscience (see the present special issue). Only recently has there been a resurgence of theoretical, experimental and clinical interest in the study of avoidance (see Figure 1). Alas, although avoidance learning was once a central topic in basic psychological research, interest has waned since the 1970's, leaving important questions unanswered. Given the key role of avoidance in normal and disordered psychological functioning, it is critical to better understand the relevant conditions and psychological mechanisms responsible for the learning of avoidant reactions. Individuals with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), for instance, tend to avoid situations in which the potential for contact with contaminants is high ( Rachman, 2004), Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) patients will try to avoid intrusive memories ( Brewin and Holmes, 2003 Williams and Moulds, 2007), and social phobics will refuse to attend group gatherings ( Bögels et al., 2010 Schneier et al., 2011). Maladaptive avoidance is in fact a central characteristic of a wide spectrum of mental disorders ( World Health Organization, 2004 American Psychiatric Association, 2013). In such cases, avoidance loses its adaptive value and may transform into a maladaptive response. At the same time, excessive avoidance in the absence of real threat can severely impair individuals' quality of life and may stop them from encountering anxiety-correcting information ( Barlow, 2002).
People will typically not enter a building after a major earthquake nor approach a stray lion. Avoidance of genuinely threatening stimuli or situations is a key characteristic of adaptive fear.
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